Racism And How Laws Created Over Centuries - 1158 Words

This paper investigates many different articles and reports on the origins of racism and how laws created over centuries have still failed to completely annihilate the practice of bigotry against minorities. Through the examination of different stories, articles, and research, this paper suggests and supports the idea of racism being implemented secretly through the institution system, and the relationship between the reality of a minority with a job compared to someone else with the same job. This paper also explains how certain actions are only still in society because bigotry is more so a learned behavior. Introduction Despite the hard fought years of abuse and the milestone of achieving an African American president, racism is more concealed now due to Civil Right Laws. Because of this, America is now using incidental and institutional racism to somewhat justify their acts. Statistics show that African Americans are what makes up most of the population within prisons and there are countless acts of police brutality killings towards unarmed African American victims. Not to mention the everyday challenges African-American minorities have to face when dealing with recreational events, job applications, or even shopping. But the main question that is still stirring is how did we get here, and what do we have to do to help prevent and beat modern day racism. What is Racism? Racism by definition is, â€Å"The belief that race is the primary determinant of human traitsShow MoreRelatedThe Problem of Racial Discrimination1578 Words   |  6 Pagesthemselves. Over the course of time, this created various feelings about one group over that of the other. At the same time, feelings of jealousy and resentment fueled animosity between racial groups. Evidence of these kinds of distinctions is going back to some of the earliest accounts in the Bible with the Jews enslaved and escaping from slavery in Egypt. The reason why they were slaves is because the Jews were seen as inferior to the ancients Egyptians. In the 20th and early 21st centuries, many ofRead MoreSlavery : Racism And Racism Essay1134 Words   |  5 PagesSlavery: A root to Racism. Slavery and Racism Slavery as described by Oxford dictionaries â€Å"a person who is the legal property of another is forced to obey them† was introduced to America dating back to 17th and 18th centuries. African slaves were first brought to America as a means of cheap labor to work on tobacco plantations and later on the cotton gin. With the constant demand for labor and declining population, the colonists were led to believe that African slaves were the cheapest and efficientRead MoreWhite Supremacy Is Influencing The Young People Of Today988 Words   |  4 PagesSupremacy is influencing the young people of today the wrong thing? Why should White Supremacy in America be abolished? Over more than 200 years, White Supremacy has made an authority on the nation’s history, often through the federal and state laws, and it continues to be a visual element in the American society. White Supremacy was created during the 19th century, during the removal of the Native American tribes in the east of Mississippi to land west of the river. President AndrewRead MoreRace And A Broader Spectrum982 Words   |  4 PagesCommunities started too form all over the globe and individuals become groups of people. Over time, the human species advanced with great pace eventually, leading up to the present day and what we know about life today. The human mind is a wonderful thing to understand how it works and observe its changes throughout the evolution of man. To see race in a broader spectrum, I will use the lens of psychological to see how race works at Elizabethtown College. With an understand of how race works in the worldRead MoreEssay on A Noncolor Blind Society1458 Words   |  6 Pagesthrough injustice which was widely known as the American paradox. Even though it is stated in the Declaration of Independence that, All men are created equal, decades ago and often times today, it only applied to what was believed to be the superior race, and that only meant certain groups of people. This American paradox connected directly to racism which included prejudice, discrimination, and institutional inequality defined by sociologists Michael Omi and Howard Winant. America is an unequalRead MoreRacism As A Part Of Human Nature Essay1513 Words   |  7 Pages Racism is an extremely important issue that has plagued the United States of America for countless decades. America was established on racism, many Africans were enslaved and brought to America for the benefit of its white settlers. Africans were forced to farm and work for free Which created the wealth gap in the United States of America. Throughout American history racism has had a great effect on its minorities. Racism has affected many minorities such as countless lives being lost orRead MoreRacial Discrimination Against A Race1425 Words   |  6 PagesThe persons that practice racism are a set group in our society and their prejudice usually arises from ignorance to a lack of understanding. Racial discrimination against a race still existed for centuries. Racism is an historical stratification process by which the population of European descent, through its individual and institutional distress patterns, intentionally has been able to sustain, to its own best advantages such as power and financial advantages. The dynamic mechanics of upward orRead MoreIs The Mass Incarceration Of Blacks The New Jim Crow?1540 Words   |  7 Pages(Prison Activist Resource Center. Racism Fact Sheets: â€Å" Latinos and the Criminal Injustice System.† 2003). Th ere is a huge number of African Americans involved in the criminal justice system in some way. The average person does not know about mass incarceration nor about the racism that is in just about every part of the criminal justice system. When most people think about racism their thoughts often drift to slavery or Jim Crow laws, but for most, they do not consider how the amount of African AmericansRead MoreRacism And Racism1326 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout history, inequality and racism have been a major problem in all governments. Inequality is the difference in size, degree, and circumstances. Governments have showed inequality in their economic growth, which also helps them thrive on the poor. Racism is also a benefit to states where the dominant race runs the government. A liberal democracy is a democratic system of government in which individual rights and freedoms are officially recognized and protected, and the exercise of politicalRead MoreAnalysis Of Hurston s Zora Hu rston 1294 Words   |  6 PagesRacism is the belief that people that were certain skin type were better than others. One did everything better than the other at certain things. It has been one of the main factors to society in the U.S. The biggest one back in history had to be African Americans were treated different because of their color and the whites were took over Africa s property. Similarly, to the two essays I read in class that discussed racism back in the days. One of them was Zora Hurston who talked about how it was

Wagamama - What does the Japanese word wagamama mean

Word of the Day: wagamama Meaning: selfishness; egoism; willfulness Japanese characters: ã‚ Ã£ Å'㠁 ¾Ã£  ¾ Example: Kare wa hitorikko nanode, sukoshi wagamama na tokoro ga aru.Ã¥ ½ ¼Ã£  ¯Ã¤ ¸â‚¬Ã¤ º ºÃ£  £Ã¥ ­ Ã£  ªÃ£  ®Ã£  §Ã£â‚¬ Ã¥ °â€˜Ã£ â€"ã‚ Ã£ Å'㠁 ¾Ã£  ¾Ã£  ªÃ£  ¨Ã£ â€œÃ£â€š Ã£ Å'㠁‚る。 Translation: Being an only child, he is a little selfish. More Words of the Day: Previous wordNext wordWord of the Day by email

Boots Free Essays

Would Mulishly be able to help Boots manage the Japanese regulations? Boots needs to reformulate more than 2,000 products in order to meet with the regulations and import restrictions of Japanese market, Which is a huge investment and after reformulation, these product have to be registered with the Japanese authorities whiny had considerable leeway in how they applied such regulation. Nevertheless, Mediumistic Corporation belong to the Mediumistic keiretsu Which is one of he oldest and largest industrial group in Japan and are leaders in their respective industries, they already have experience working with foreign firms to established in Japan and they are looking to increase Its retail activities. So they match In the right way with MAC to manage all of the Japanese regulation. We will write a custom essay sample on Boots or any similar topic only for you Order Now 2. Would It be able to provide meaningful advice about how to attract and retain Japanese costumers? Foreign companies often had difficulty entering Japan, due to the complexity for obtaining resources, and local reputation or business relationship, the trend is to see s less trustworthy the foreign firms. So in order to attract and retain costumers MAC is the best option for entering the Japanese Market due to its well known reputation and access to resources ( people, real state and financial resources). But they still have to be aware of the complexity of the health and beauty business in Japan, Which have many differentiation for each area. 3. Would the two companies continue to share the same interests? The Joint venture proposal is giving Boots the decision advantage by having 51% stake of the Joint venture, and as MAC is looking to increase retail activities they are in he same direction and should continue to have the same interest in the process of entering this market. Was the proposed Joint venture a good Idea for Boots? Is a great Idea, In order to enter the Japanese market they need to make this Joint venture with MAC, there Is no other way due to regulations of the Japanese authorities and the untrustworthy of the market in foreign firms, it would end up in big losses if no experience and they are in the right position to make this venture since they are the leaders and are managing in and excel way their local market. How to cite Boots, Papers

Factors Influencing of ART in PMTCT

Question: Discuss about the Factors Influencing of ART in PMTCT. Answer: Introduction: Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is associated with the progressive impairment of the immune system and leads to the serious and late stage complications in the human being. Over the last three decades prevalence of HIV is spread all over the world. According to World Health Organization (WHO) estimate there are approximately 40 million people are living with HIV. In this women population is approximately 16 million and pregnant women population is approximately 1.4 million. These pregnant women have the risk of transmission of HIV to their children. This growing prevalence of HIV in women is due to physiological aspects of women responsible for the susceptibility to infection. Along with this social and psychological vulnerability generated by economic, socio-cultural and legal factors is responsible for prevalence of HIV. WHO also estimated that around 77 % women who were living with HIV received antiretroviral medicine to prevent transmission of HIV to their babies. More than half of the burden of HIV was estimated in the Southern African countries like Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Swaziland and Namibia. Approximately 20 % of the expectant mothers are generally affected with HIV in these countries and 20 % deaths occurred due to the AIDS (Sharma Khadhiravan, 2008). In Botswana, approximately 40 % of antennal women were infected with HIV. Out of these, approximately 16 % of infants born with HIV infection. Even though prevalence of AIDS is more in these sub-Saharan African countries, utilization of antiretroviral drugs is not widespread. Different reasons were observed for this low utilization of antiretroviral drugs in these countries and these reasons include cost, logistic and social issues (Yazdanpanah, 2004). It has been observed that high cost of antiretroviral drugs and diagnostic are the main barriers for the prevention of transmission of HIV from mother to child. Other barriers responsible for the prevention of transmission of HIV from mother to child (PMTCT) are lack of national regulatory policy, tariffs and taxation on antiretroviral drugs and lack of international funding for the implementation of antiretroviral drug administration (Attaran Gillespie-White, 2001). Even tough, Botswana Government decided to initiate antiretroviral drug therapy for the people in 2000, prevention remains the cornerstone for the national AIDS strategy. In accordance with the 2010 recommendations of the WHO, the Ministry of Health has improved access to ART by expanding eligibility criteria to all adults with CD4 counts 350 cells/L. This change is also reflected in pediatric populations; all children 24 months of age as well as children from 2 5 years with CD4 counts 750 cells/L or CD4 25% will be eligible to begin ART.) . In African countries, Botswana is the first country to initiate programme for the prevention of mother to child transmission in 2001 (Creek et al., 2006). International recommendations for the antiretroviral therapy were not considered for the implementation of antiretroviral therapy in Botswana. These recommendations were non-consideration of the climate, complexity of social and health infrastructure and lifestyle of the people of the Bots wana. Along with these government initiatives other stakeholders also participated in the implementation of prevention of mother to child transmission. Bill Gates foundation and major pharmaceutical firm like Merck contributed to the implementation of prevention of transmission from mother to child. Ministry of Education with the collaboration of Stanford University in 2011 launched Teach AIDS software which helps in education of the people to fight against HIV infection. Implementation of Option B+ and prevention of mother to child transmission in Botswana collectedly resulted in the improvement in the reduction of HIV cases (Coutsoudis et al., 2013). Literature review: It has been well established in the literature that implementation of ART programme successfully resulted in the reduction in the transmission of HIV from mother to child. Health of child is completely dependent on the health of the mother. Survival of the virus responsible for AIDS depends of the health of the mother. If mother health is not good there are more chances of long duration survival of viruses and transmission to the children. Due to ill health of mother, there is the possibility of the reduced transfer of positive immunity in the children and it results in the increased burden of the mother to children transmission. In Tanzania implementation of prevention of mother to child transmission in collaboration with Option B+ resulted in lessening the transmission of HIV infection from mother to child (Gourlay, et al., 2016). In Nigeria also prevention of mother to child prevention programme of HIV infection was implemented, however this programme faced problems like influence of less education among the population, low employment and the low socioeconomic status of the people. In a study conducted in Ghana, it has been established that lack of knowledge of antiretroviral therapy among women resulted in the inefficient implementation of the PMTCT. Option B+ has been successfully implemented in Malvi for reduction in the HIV transmission (Kim, et al., 2015). However, Option B+ has not been successfully implemented in Botswana because of lack of support for community based therapy for ART, unwillingness of the women to use ART, problems associated with the breastfeeding and lack of qualified human resource for the implementation of the programme. In some of the sub-Saharan countries use of ART for PMTCT increased from 15 % in 2005 to 55 % in 2009. However, this rate of increment in the use of ART for PMTCT is not enough in the country like Botswana where prevalence of AIDS is very high (WHO, 2010). From the literature, it is evident that there is the good understanding for the knowledge of barriers for the uptake of ART in PMTCT in general population and however, there is less knowledge about the barriers for uptake of ART in PMTCT in pregnant women (Mills et al., 2006; Posse et al., 2008). In a study conducted in Zimbabwe, it has been established that, replacement of single-dose nevirapine (sdNVP) with modified ART resulted in the reduction of transmission of HIV infection to child in PMTCT (Ciaranello et al., 2013). In studies like Post-Exposure Prophylaxis of Infants (PEPI-Malawi), Breastfeeding, Antiretrovirals, and Nutrition (BAN) study and the 3 parallel randomized trials of Six Weeks Extended Nevirapine (SWEN) exhibite d success of ART in PMTCT. In longer duration studies like HIV Prevention Trials Network (HPTN), it has been established that there is no transmission of HIV infection from using ART in PMTCT (Shetty Maldonado, 2013). Drug Resource Enhancement Against AIDS and Malnutrition (DREAM) study established that there is reduced maternal mortality, premature birth and PMTCT due to the use of ART. Hence, ART should be initiated in the pregnant women at the optimum time to avoid further complications. There is evidence available for the safety of ART in infants, hence pregnant women should not worry about the risk of ART to infants. ART in PMTCT has been successfully implemented in North America and Europe. As a result, there is the eradication of the HIV in the new born. Women with the positive HIV infection and who met the criteria of number of CD4 cell should start the ART immediately after the positive test. WHO recommended two options for the ART. In Option A, women with HIV infection sh ould start zidovudine during antenatal period and at the time of delivery. Also, these women should take nevirapine every week. In case of infants, nevirapine treatment should start daily from the birth until cessation of breastfeeding. In Option B, women should take three combinations of ART during antenatal period and continue until the cessation if breastfeeding (Shetty Maldonado, 2013). Rationale for study design: There were the studies and reviews available for the information related to the community based involvement for PMTCT, success and failures of PMTCT and retention of ART therapy in pregnant women (Ferguson et al., 2015; Busza et al., 2012). However, less studies were available for the evaluation of factors influencing uptake of ART in PMTCT. There is urgent requirement to understand the factors responsible for the uptake of ART in PMTCT. Hence, this study is planned to understand the factors responsible for uptake of ART in PMTCT. In this study factors responsible for the uptake of the ART in PMTCT were selected based on the evidence and literature. It is evident from the literature that poor knowledge about the transmission of HIV and role of ART in the PMTCT are responsible for the inefficient implementation of the PMTCT programme. There were also doubt about the effectiveness of ART in the management of AIDS and few women had belief that ART would cause HIV (Watson-Jones et al., 2 012; Duff et al., 2010). Psychological factors like shock and depression due to the diseased condition are responsible for the inability to uptake ART in PMTCT (Stinson Myer, 2012). Stigma related to the disclosure of HIV to the family members and to the community leads to not attending the clinics for ART. As a result, there is the barrier to the implementation of ART in the PMTCT (Laher et al., 2012). It is also evident from the literature that insufficiency of trained clinical staff for the implementation of ART in PMTCT resulted in the ineffective implementation of the policy. This resulted in the increased number of patients and consequently increased waiting list for the patients, stress on the staff members and failure of the staff members for the implementation of the ART in PMTCT (Sprague et al., 2011; Laher et al., 2012). It has been well established in the literature that knowledge about the HIV, ART and PTMCT could has positive impact on the socioeconomic status of the people and educational level. Women with higher education were positively responded to the implementation of the ART in PMTCT. Material and methods: In this project non-experimental and quantitative method will be implemented to collect the information regarding factors influencing uptake of ART on PMTCT. Study design will be descriptive in nature and study duration will be 6 months. This study will be conducted in the Boteti health district in Botswana. This study will be incorporating 500 pregnant women. 500 women will be enough to get the required data. Method of sampling used in this study will be random sampling. Sample size will be determined based on the feasibility of the resources. This sample size will be optimum for the statistical analysis. These women will be from low, middle and high socioeconomic class. Both the types like educated and uneducated women will be incorporated in this study. For this study 10 facilities will be selected comprising of 6 maternity facilities and 4 clinics in the Boteti health district in Botswana will be selected. These maternity homes and clinics will comprise of both Government and non -Government organizations. This a analytical cross-sectional investigation will be performed using interviews in different maternity facilities and clinic. Theses 500 women will be allocated to different maternity homes and clinics based on the geographical areas. Allocation of the women to the respective maternity home and clinic will be based on the financial constraints, services available and social support. Inclusion criteria for the selection of pregnant women will be at least one visit to the maternity home or clinic during current pregnancy and these women will be confirmed HIV positive. Exclusion criteria will be women with negative HIV test. Data regarding CD4 cells will be collected from the respective maternity home and clinic. Women with CD4 cell count below 350 cells per microlitre will be considered in the study. Age of women incorporated in the study will be between 18 45 years. These women will be approximately distributed equally among first, second and third trim ester of the pregnancy. Approximately 33 % women will be there in each population of trimester women. Interviews of these women will be conducted by the trained and experts in the field. For conducting these interviews structured questionnaire will be prepared. This questionnaire will be specifically in the local language so that all the class of women will be comfortable in attending the interview session. Location of the interview will be respective maternity home or clinic. Information about the identity of the participant women will be kept confidential to maintain dignity of the patient. Informed consent will be taken from each women and one of the family members before conducting interview. Approval will be taken from the human sciences research council (HSRC) ethics committee of and Ministry Of Health Botswana Government other health authorities at the district level before conducting the study. These questionnaires will be incorporating questions related to the knowledge rel ated to the HIV and ART, maternal education, psychological issues of women related to the AIDS, social issues of women related to the AIDS, whether women are attending traditional healers and birth attendees and support from the staff in the prevention of PTMCT. Following will be the representative questions in the questionnaire : Has you know about HIV/AIDS ? Has you know about ART ? Has you used ART ? Has you know about transmission of HIV to child ? Are you depressed due to your HIV infection ? Are you getting support from your family members from your family and community members in treating HIV infection ? Are you attending traditional healers during your pregnancy ? Are you getting enough support and help from health care providers during your treatment for HIV infection ? Data will be collected twice from a single participant. Initially data will be collected based on the interview without any counseling and second time data will be collected after the completion of counseling about importance of ART and its role in the PMTCT. All the data will be stored as electronic database. Collected data will be presented in the form of arithmetic mean, standard deviation, median and percentage. Collected data will be analyzed using Statistical Analysis System, SAS 9.1 (Peltzer et al., 2011; Stinson et al., 2010; Stringer et al., 2010). Evaluation and applicability of finding: Evaluation of the outcome of the study will be performed based on the collected data. Evaluation will be performed to determine whether collected data will be useful for answering all the questions created at the time of deciding objectives of the study. Collected data will be evaluated to get insight into the validity of assumptions made. Outcome of this study will be useful in implementing the same criteria in the large population of women. Factors which will be responsible as barriers for ART in PTMCT will be managed more effectively so that these factors will not interfere in the implementation of ART in PTMCT. Factors which will be promoting ART in PTMCT will be encouraged to implement in the actual practice. Outcome of this study will also be useful in designing educational programme for pregnant women with HIV infection. Solution or alternatives will be found for factors which will be hindering the implementation of ART in PTMCT. Health care professionals in the nursing home a nd clinical will be using these findings as evidence and will implement same findings in their maternity homes and clinics. Findings of this study will be definitely useful in controlling progression of HIV through PTMCT. Findings of this study will also useful for Government and regulatory agencies for implementing the uniform cost of ART, so that all the class of women will consume ART without barrier of high cost. Outcome of this study will be useful in initiating counseling programme in the respective society or community. This will be definitely useful in the controlling the social issues in implementing the ART in PTMCT. Due to this study, women with HIV will feel relieved because their identity will be secured and also these women will be getting proper treatment for HIV. This study will be useful in the generation of well qualified human resource for the implementation of the ART in PTMCT. This study will be useful in understanding view of the women with socioeconomic backgr ound and different educational level about ART in PTMCT. This understanding will be helpful in taking care of factors as barriers for ART in PTMCT and as a result reduction the prevalence of AIDS. Outcome of this study will also be useful in understanding the family related issues and will be useful in implementing the family centered approach for ART in PTMCT. This will definitely be useful in getting family support for the prevention HIV. Most important outcome of this will be production of infant without HIV infection and consequently prevalence of HIV infection will be controlled. This will be definitely useful in the overall improvement in the health of the society and wellbeing of the society (Peltzer et al., 2011; Stinson et al., 2010; Stringer et al., 2010). Limitations of this include number of participants are less. Study with more number of participants would give more power of analysis. Data obtained in this study will be obtained from the participant women only and there is the possibility of recall bias. There should be other source of data also to get more robust results. References: Attaran, A., Gillespie-White, L. (2001). Do patents for antiretroviral drugs constrain access to AIDS treatment in Africa? Journal Of American Medical Association, 286(15), 1886-92. Busza, J., Walker, D., Hairston, A., Gable, A., Pitter, C., Lee, S., et al. (2012). Community based approaches for prevention of mother to child transmission in resource poor settings: a social ecological review. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 15(2), 17373, doi: 10.7448/IAS.15.4.17373. Ciaranello, A.L., Perez, F., Maruva, M., Chu, J., Engelsmann, B., et al., (2011). WHO 2010 guidelines for prevention of mother-to-child HIV transmission in Zimbabwe: modeling clinical outcomes in infants and mothers. PLoS One, 6(6), e20224. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020224. Coutsoudis, A., Goga, A., Desmond, C., Barron, P., Black, V., Coovadia, H. (2013). Is Option B+ the best choice. Southern African Journal of HIV Medicine , 14 (1), 1-52. Creek, L.T., alwano, G. M., molosiwa, R.R., Roels, H.T., kenyon, A.T., et al., (2006). Botswanas Tebelopele Voluntary counselling and testing network. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 43, 210- 218. Duff, P., Kipp, W., Wild, T.C., Rubaale, T., Okech-Ojony, J. (2010). Barriers to accessing highly active antiretroviral therapy by HIV-positive women attending an antenatal clinic in a regional hospital in western Uganda. Journal of the International AIDS Society, 13, 37, doi: 10.1186/1758-2652-13-37. Ferguson, L., Grant, A.D., Watson-Jones, D., Kahawita, T., Ongech, J.O., Ross, D.A. (2012). Linking women who test HIV-positive in pregnancy-related services to longterm HIV care and treatment services: a systematic review. Tropical Medicine International Health, 17(5), 564-80. Gourlay, A., Wringe, A., Todd, J., Cawley, C., Michael, D., Machemba, R., et al. (2016). Uptake of services for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in a community cohort in rural Tanzania from 2005 to 2012. BMC health services research , 16(4), DOI: 10.1186/s12913-015-1249-6. Kim, M. H., Ahmed, S., Hosseinipour, M. C., Yu, X., Nguyen, C., Chimbwandira, F., et al. (2015). Brief Report: Impact of Option B+ on the Infant PMTCT Cascade in Lilongwe, Malawi. Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes, 70(1), 99-103. Laher, F., Cescon, A., Lazarus, E., Kaida, A., Makongoza, M., Hogg, R.S., et al. (2012). Conversations with mothers: exploring reasons for prevention of mother-to child transmission (PMTCT) failures in the era of programmatic scale-up in Soweto, South Africa. AIDS and Behavior, 16(1), 91-8. Mills, E.J, Nachega, J.B., Bangsberg, D.R., Singh, S., Rachlis, B., Wu P, et al. (2006). Adherence to HAART: a systematic review of developed and developing nation patient-reported barriers and facilitators. PLOS Medicine, 3(11), e438, doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030438. Peltzer, K., Sikwane, E., Majaja, M. (2011). Factors associated with short-course antiretroviral prophylaxis (dual therapy) adherence for PMTCT in Nkangala district, South Africa. Acta Paediatrica, 100(9), 1253-7. Posse, M., Meheus, F., van Asten, H., van der Ven, A., Baltussen, R. (2008). Barriers to access to antiretroviral treatment in developing countries: a review. Tropical Medicine International Health, 13(7), 904-13. Sharma, K.S, Kadhiravan, T. (2008). Management of the patient with HIV disease. Disease management, 58, 162-195. Shetty, A.K., Maldonado, Y. (2013). Antiretroviral drugs to prevent mother-to-child transmission of HIV during breastfeeding. Current HIV Research, 11(2), 102-25. Sprague, C., Chersich, M.F., Black, V. (2011). Health system weaknesses constrain access to PMTCT and maternal HIV services in South Africa: a qualitative enquiry. AIDS Research and Therapy,8, 10, doi: 10.1186/1742-6405-8-10. Stringer, E.M, Ekouevi, D.K., Coetzee, D., Tih, P.M., Creek, T.L., Stinson, K., et al. (2010). Coverage of nevirapine-based services to prevent mother-to-child HIV transmission in 4 African countries. Journal Of American Medical Association, 304(3), 293-302. Stinson, K., Boulle, A., Coetzee, D., Abrams, E.J., Myer, L. (2010). Initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy among pregnant women in Cape Town, South Africa. Tropical Medicine International Health, 15(7), 825-32. Stinson, K., Myer, L. (2012). Barriers to initiating antiretroviral therapy during pregnancy: a qualitative study of women attending services in Cape Town, South Africa. African Journal of AIDS Research, 11(1), 65-73. Yazdanpanah, Y. (2004). Cost associated with combination antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected patients. Journal of Antimicrobial chemotherapy, 53, 558-561. World Health Organisation. Towards universal access: scaling up priority HIV/AIDS interventions in the health sector. Geneva: World Health Organisation; 2010. Watson-Jones, D., Balira, R., Ross, D.A., Weiss, H.A., Mabey, D. (2012). Missed opportunities: poor linkage into ongoing care for HIV-positive pregnant women in Mwanza, Tanzania. PLoS One, 7(7), e40091, doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040091.